Canadian Response to Conflict in Afghanistan and Forced Migration: Strategies for a Solution

Introduction

Protracted armed conflict, persecution of ordinary citizens, large-scale violence, and violation of human rights are the primary drivers of forced migration in any country. In Afghanistan, forced migration has been a persistent issue since the Soviet Union's invasion in 1979 to support the new communist government, which was grappling with anti-communist insurgencies in the country (Britannica, 2024).

Forced migration remains a critical issue in Afghanistan, especially after the Taliban regained power in 2021, leading to mass displacement due to political persecution, economic collapse, and severe restrictions on fundamental rights (Britannica, 2024). After the Soviet Union attacked Afghanistan, significant resistance from Afghan factions ensued, resulting in Moscow responding with bombings and mine attacks in the countryside, forcing hundreds of thousands of Afghans to flee the country. By 1982, nearly 2.8 million Afghans had fled the country to seek asylum in Pakistan and another 1.5 million in Iran (Britannica, 2024). The Soviet intervention in the governance of Afghanistan was opposed by Pakistan, the United States, and Saudi Arabia ( Johnson, 2004). The United States provided support to Afghan rebel groups through financial aid and weapons supply, mainly via Operation Cyclone, one of the longest covert operations conducted by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the USA (Coll, 2004).

By the late 1980s, Soviet forces were facing a gorilla war with hit-and-run groups of Afghan rebels who would use their knowledge of local terrain for attacks before escaping for shelter in Pakistan. Due to the internal political and economic conditions in the Soviet Union and the burden of maintaining control in Afghanistan, Soviet forces withdrew in 1989 (Rubinstein, 1988), and the mujahideen captured a large part of the country. However, they could not turn local victories into national ones (Kumar and Pant, 2014). Despite attempts at negotiation with the communist government led by the then President Najibullah to prevent conflict and promote peace, the United Nations' peace processes failed to resolve disputes between Islamic factions and the Najibullah government. Subsequently, the government collapsed due to internal divisions and a lack of support from previous allies, allowing various mujahideen factions to seize control of Afghanistan ( Johnson, 2004 ). Not all mujahideen leaders participated in the new government. Eventually, Burhanuddin Rabbani established an Islamic government and invited other parties to collaborate, but Gulbuddin Hekmatyar declined to join the government and instead fought against Rabbani's administration, exacerbating the power struggle which led to a civil war that displaced many Afghans in search of safety. Nearly one million people were displaced by 1992, seeking shelter in other parts of the country or refuge in Pakistan ( Johnson, 2004). In 1996, the Taliban, a fundamentalist Islamic group, captured Kabul and established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. “[T]he US supported the Taliban politically through its allies Pakistan and Saudi Arabia, essentially because Washington viewed the Taliban as anti-Iranian, anti-Shia and pro-Western” (Ahmad, 2008 cited in Kumar and Pant, 2014, p. 124).

In 2001, the United States of America experienced the deadliest terror attack masterminded by Osama Bin Laden. The country initiated an operation to capture or kill Bin Laden, the leader of the al-Qaeda network who was sheltered by Taliban in Afghanistan (Malkasian, 2023). The al-Qaeda network was based in Afghanistan and supported by the Taliban at the ideological and organizational levels (Hassan, 2022). With the aim of removing the Taliban from power and establishing a pro-US government, the US invaded Afghanistan in 2001 and killed nearly 5000 Afghan civilians in a joint attack by the US and NATO forces (Khan, 2012). With the US military intervention, Afghanistan once again faced numerous challenges, notably the conflict between NATO troops and Taliban groups (Council on Foreign Affairs, 2025, 2025), resulting in the loss of lives and homes and the displacement of millions (Khan, 2012). Despite efforts to address the conflict, the humanitarian crisis persisted (Kumar and Pant, 2014) and was compounded by the Taliban's return to power on August 15, 2021 (Abbas, 2023).

Consistent power struggles have led to the displacement of over 8 million Afghans due to conflict, violence, and poverty, with at least 3.2 million internally displaced within Afghanistan (UNHCR, 2023a). Notably, Afghan refugees rank as the third-largest displaced population globally, with the majority seeking refuge and support in Pakistan and Iran. Women and children make up over 70 per cent of those in need of support (UNHCR, 2023a). The root causes of forced migration from Afghanistan are diverse, notably war and conflict, human rights abuses, and individual and generalized persecution (Khan, 2012).

The present study endeavours to analyse conflict in Afghanistan and forced emigration, exploring potential resolution strategies, including dispute resolution between hostile groups and enhanced peacebuilding. This research paper aims to answer the following questions:

1. How Soviet and U.S. invasions of Afghanistan contributed to patterns of forced migration in the region?
2. What was the role of Canada in war in Afghanistan?
3. What are the challenges and implications of forced migration in Afghanistan since the Taliban takeover?
4. What are the potential solutions, including international mediation efforts and peace-building initiatives, that could promote stability and mitigate forced migration?

This study seeks to contribute to a greater understanding of the impact of four decades of conflict in Afghanistan on forced migration, focusing on identifying durable solutions.

Causes and Consequences of Prevailing Conflict in Afghanistan

Afghanistan has experienced a protracted conflict, including external invasion and civil war, over the last four decades. This prolonged conflict has had stern negative impacts on many different dimensions of the social and economic fabric. Consequently, these largely internal conflicts heightened ethnic differences, reinforced traditional tribalism at the expense of national unity, and led to forced migration of millions of Afghans.

Before the beginning of the Taliban invasion of Afghanistan the country suffered several political upheavals, coups, and invasions, which led to the gradual disorganization and weakening of the central government and its security forces. A coup led by Mohamed Daoud Khan in 1973 ended the 30-year stable reign of King Mohamed Zahir, consequently establishing the Republic of Afghanistan (Kakar, 1978). This coup shortly fell to another coup led by the communist party backed by Soviet leaders (Britannica, 2024). The Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979 in an attempt to not only re-stabilize the weak communist government but also to prevent other foreign actors like Pakistan and Iran from taking advantage of Afghanistan's weakened and disorganized situation (Rubin, 1995). However, the Soviets severely underestimated the will of the Islamic groups, which rose and rejected any uninvited foreign invaders. Shortly after the Soviet invasion, isolated mujahideen guerrilla groups began to attack elements of the Soviet forces successfully and, after each battle, faded back into the mountains (Jalali & Grau, 1998). The Soviets countered by ruthlessly attacking civilians and bombing whole towns and villages (Grau,1998). This naturally led to millions of people fleeing to Pakistan and Iran (Rashid, 2000).

With the aid of more sophisticated weapons, military intelligence, and financing from the US, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia, the mujahideen were winning more and more battles (Grau, 1998). “Finally, in 1989, the Soviets, with 15,000 killed and 35,000 wounded, decided to withdraw their army back to Russia” (Bezhan, 2019: 3). With the Soviets gone, the mujahideen leaders with their respective military became the de facto leaders of Afghanistan (Rubin, 1995). It was a positive and hopeful time for peace and prosperity for the Afghan people. But although the mujahideen were individually great guerrilla leaders, they were inexperienced and too fragmented to lead a national government successfully. As a result, all the pre-war internal conflicts rose again, engulfing the country once more in a state of continuous civil war. It was this weakened and disorganized political situation that allowed the Taliban to take over the country in 1996 (Magnus, 1997).

The United States launched its military intervention in Afghanistan on October 7, 2001, in response to the September 11 terrorist attacks. The primary objectives were to dismantle the al-Qaeda network, which orchestrated the attacks, and to remove the Taliban regime, which provided al-Qaeda with sanctuary and operational support (CFR, 2025). While the intervention initially aimed to enhance security, it also contributed to prolonged instability, widespread human suffering, and large-scale displacement (Vine et al., 2020). In just five months "some 3,200 Afghans lost their life due to starvation, exposure, illness, and injury as a result of war and strikes between 7 October 2001 and January 2002" (Khan, 2012: 215).

Role of Canada in Afghan War

In 2001, Canada joined the United States in its fight against al-Qaeda and the Taliban regime, deploying forces to Afghanistan, where they remained until 2014. Initially, Canadian troops focused on patrolling and supporting the newly established interim government. Over time, however, they became integral to counterinsurgency operations, particularly in Kandahar, where they fought against Taliban insurgents (Azzi & Foot, 2021). While Canadian forces successfully prevented Taliban advances in key areas, insurgents repeatedly regrouped with external support. Azzi and Foot (2021) argue that Pakistan’s military and intelligence services provided training, funding, and safe havens for Taliban fighters, allowing them to sustain their insurgency.

Throughout its 13-year military mission, Canada was not only engaged in combat operations, particularly in Kandahar but also played a key role in Afghanistan’s reconstruction and governance. Even as its forces actively fought insurgents, Canada provided economic assistance, development aid, and advisory support to the new Afghan administration led by President Hamid Karzai. Canadian officials collaborated with international partners to strengthen government institutions, improve security forces, and promote economic stability.

By 2011, Canada transitioned from combat operations to a training-focused mission, assisting the Afghan army and police forces before fully withdrawing in 2014 (Veterans Affairs Canada, n.d.). Despite its military departure, Canada remained committed to Afghanistan’s reconstruction, contributing approximately $2.2 billion between 2001 and 2014 to social and economic development, including healthcare and education programs (Azzi & Foot, 2021).

The prolonged conflict in Afghanistan severely impacted various aspects of society. Psychologically, many young and educated Afghans lost hope for a stable future, struggling to envision progress or positive change. “The war had harmed more than 50% of the population through death, injury, and displacement” (Khan, 2012, p. 217). The conflict also devastated the social environment and agricultural sector, hindering Afghanistan’s path to sustainable economic development. Researchers note that traditional economic growth was further disrupted by landmines and unexploded ordnance left behind by the Soviets. These hazards not only posed a threat to Afghan civilians but also led to the deaths of several Canadian soldiers (Veterans Affairs Canada, n.d.). “Although mine-clearing has been underway for over a decade, there are still an estimated 10 million mines scattered throughout the country, a deterrent to traditional economic growth and repatriation of thousands of refugees” (Khan, 2012, p. 219).

Over the past two decades, conflicts in Afghanistan have not only resulted in direct violence, such as civilian casualties caused by both Taliban and U.S. forces but have also intensified systemic harm and social inequalities (UN, 2020). This has led to unequal access to economic, social, cultural, and political opportunities, forcing many to leave the country. As a result of structural violence and restrictive social laws imposed by the Taliban, many women and young girls are deprived of basic human rights. Due to lack of access to shelter, food, education, and employment, many Afghans are often driven into forced migration.

The Impact of Armed Conflicts on Forced Migration

The protracted conflict in Afghanistan has been a matter of concern for several decades, leading to human rights abuses, poor economic conditions, weak states, and forced migration. The persistent conflict has roots in the history of political instability, ethnic divisions, religious violence, and a weak governance structure. The causes of conflict are complex and multifaceted, aligning with different elements such as political, economic, social, and cultural factors, as well as external influences, including military intervention by major international powers and their geopolitical interests. Consequently, the conflict has negatively impacted many social aspects, such as a significant increase in human sufferings and loss of lives and property across the country. It has also affected the region, regional relations and the international community

Despite Afghanistan's geopolitical location and strategic position between South and Central Asia, it has become a battleground for regional and global powers competing for influence over resources. Since the emergence of the Taliban in the 1990s, the political situation has become more complicated as they imposed radical ideology and provided a haven for terrorist groups such as Al-Qaeda. This has resulted in Afghanistan becoming a battlefield between terrorist networks and international powers such as the U.S. and its allies. Due to persistent wars, human rights abuses, and persecution in conflict areas, people have lost hope of staying safe in their cities and villages. The continued state of uncertainty, protracted war, poverty, and a fragile state have led to large-scale forced migration. Furthermore, the resulting conflict-induced humanitarian crisis is another reason for millions of Afghans being displaced within their own country and to the neighbouring countries.

Historically, forced migration and displacement have been associated with the Soviet Union's occupation of Afghanistan, civil war, and political instability after the collapse of the last communist government in 1992. The Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan and the subsequent war with resistance groups resulted in massive forced migration. For example, during the 1980s, the mujahideen opposition forces grew rapidly; this increased the intensity of the conflict and forced millions to flee the country. “By 1986, the number of Afghan refugees had reached nearly five million, mostly in Pakistan and Iran” (World Refugee Survey 1986, cited in Ruiz, 2002: 8). Additionally, forced migration in the aftermath of Soviet invasion of Afghanistan resulted in an estimated 1.5 million Afghan deaths (Ruiz, 2002).

According to some estimates, by the end of 2021, 4.3 million people had been internally displaced within Afghanistan (IOM, 2024). After the Taliban's takeover of Afghanistan on August 15, 2021, forced migration and displacements were widely reported across different parts of the country. Research shows that forced migration after the Taliban's return to power has involved different ethnicities in Afghanistan. For example, “in central Afghanistan, Taliban authorities forced Hazara residents to leave 15 villages in September 2021” (Atal, 2021:2). At least 2,800 Hazara residents were forced to move to other districts, leaving behind their belongings and crops (Human Rights Watch, 2021). Similarly, Badakhshani Tajiks were compelled to leave the Bagh-e Shirkat area allocated for internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Kunduz province (Atal, 2021). According to Afghan researchers and experts, since the Taliban took power, they also forced Pashtun people in some areas to leave their homes and villages because they cooperated with the previous government. "Reports have emerged from Kandahar, a province with a majority of Pashtun inhabitants and the Taliban’s first leader Mullah Omar’s stronghold, where 3,000 families, mostly public servants affiliated to the previous government, were asked to leave the area" (Atal, 2021: 4).

Apart from internal displacement, pathetic human rights conditions, ethnic violence, loss of livelihood, and persistent conflict forced millions of Afghans to move to other countries. According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), by mid-2020, nearly 5.9 million Afghans lived in different countries; including 74% in Asia and 11 percent in Europe. New conflicts after the Taliban takeover forced more Afghans to seek refuge in other countries. Since 2021, 1.6 million Afghans fled to the neighbouring countries (UNHCR, 2024). By 2023, 3.4 million refugees from Afghanistan were living in Iran and another 2.1 million in Pakistan (UNHCR, 2023b).

A small proportion of refugees moved to Western countries. In 2021, 125,600 Afghans applied for asylum in other countries (UNHCR, 2022), including a large number in Canada. Consequently, the number of Afghan refugees in Canada who were granted permanent resident status increased from 2,060 in 2015 to 8,570 in 2021 (Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada, 2022). Between August 2021 and October 2023, Canada welcomed at least 40,000 vulnerable Afghans (Immigration, Refugee and Citizenship Canada, 2023). However, asylum seekers are not always welcome in the western countries; sometimes, they are deported to a third country. A recent report criticized the new policy of the British government, where Afghan asylum seekers were deported to Rwanda (Blackwell, 2024).

Overall, forced migration significantly impacts both the people who have left their homes and the countries that host them. Those forced to migrate often face challenges such as limited access to essential services, inadequate housing, and increased vulnerability to exploitation and abuse. On the other hand, host countries may experience social, economic, and political strains as they struggle to provide for the needs of the displaced population. The impact of conflict, particularly on the increasing death and displacement of civilians, emphasizes that there is a need to stop the war in Afghanistan and work toward peace talks with the Taliban and opposition parties.

International Mediation and Prospect for Conflict Resolution in Afghanistan

Upon examining the history of displacement and refugees in Afghanistan, it becomes clear that forced migration is a pervasive problem in the country, mainly stemming from prolonged conflict and political instability. Displacement of individuals and groups from their homes and subsequent migration is a complex issue with significant socioeconomic and political implications. Political instability and conflict in the country have resulted in widespread violence, human rights violations, and displacement of people from their homes. This displacement has increased poverty, social dislocation, and reduced access to crucial services. The issue of forced migration is a matter of concern not only for Afghanistan but also for the international community, and addressing it will require a coordinated and sustained approach.

To tackle the issue of forced migration and devise long-lasting solutions, it is imperative to implement peace efforts facilitated by the United Nations to settle the conflict between the Taliban and the opposition parties who governed the country from 2001 to August 15, 2021. Over the past three years since the Taliban regained power, they have not engaged in direct communication with other parties to discuss and resolve their differences. As a result, achieving a political settlement that could establish an inclusive government without the collaboration of the international community is quite challenging. The possibility of peace negotiations between the two sides seems bleak, and finding a political solution in Afghanistan without intervention from international powers appears improbable. Therefore, it is imperative for these powers, particularly the United Nations, to play a vital role in resolving conflicts and achieving peace in Afghanistan. To address the root causes of forced migration, it is essential to provide focused, sustained, and often long-term assistance to promote stability, development, and better governance (CSIS, 2018). To achieve this objective, the involvement of the international community is crucial.

Evidences show that armed conflict in various countries is one of the primary reasons for forced migration. The ongoing conflicts in countries such as Syria, Afghanistan, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Myanmar, Eritrea, Venezuela, and Colombia, have displaced approximately 20 million people from their homes (CSIS, 2018). The economic instability arising from conflict and politically fragile states are other reasons for forced migration in these countries. Therefore, resolving disputes and providing financial support for faster development to prevent forced migration is crucial. In the Afghan context, third-party intermediaries, such as the UN, can play a pivotal role in conflict resolution by using a novel approach that addresses differences between rival groups. This approach involves the third-party helping disputants to find a mutually agreeable solution without possessing authoritative decision-making power (Bercovitch, 2011). Mediation is an effective conflict management tool for complicated, intense, and prolonged disputes. The conflict in Afghanistan necessitates third-party mediation to achieve a political solution among rival groups. Stable security and accountable governance are prerequisites for reducing forced migration. Therefore, it is crucial to resolve conflicts and strengthen peace-building efforts. Good governance and security cannot be established without resolving differences between rival parties. Achieving peace in Afghanistan is essential for stable security, durable economic development, and a favourable political environment.

Peacebuilding as a Durable Solution for Mitigation of Forced Migration

A careful analysis of the four-decade-long conflict in Afghanistan reveals that the primary causes of forced migration include war, conflict, persecution, violence, and human rights abuses. Since the Soviet war, a significant number of people have been forced to leave Afghanistan and seek refuge in other countries. Additionally, the civil war, the US intervention, and Taliban rule have all contributed to internal displacement and forced emigration. Conflict in Afghanistan generates forced migration and forced migration leads to further conflict. Unfortunately, throughout history, we have witnessed numerous instances of war, conflict, human rights abuses, persecutions, and environmental disasters. However, “the current scale of forced migration and displacement worldwide is unprecedented” (Zetter, 2018: 34). It is important to note that conflict and war not only directly cause displacement but also lead to economic hardships, mistrust of government, political instability, and weakened states, thereby exacerbating migration. Forced migration and displacement have become pressing issues across the globe, particularly in conflict-affected regions. Afghanistan has been grappling with long-standing instability, oppression, and large-scale forced displacement resulting from internal power struggles. To address these issues and promote human rights without discrimination, it is necessary to implement durable solutions that ensure stability and peace. The United Nations can play a vital role in peace-building efforts to resolve conflicts between hostile groups and establish political stability.

In the aftermath of the Taliban's recent takeover of Afghanistan, the lack of recognition of political rivals and the absence of dialogue towards establishing an inclusive government have raised concerns within the international community. The Taliban's failure to resolve power struggles with opposition groups has led to uncertainty surrounding the future of Afghanistan. The Taliban must address these issues and establish an inclusive government that accommodates all ethnicities. While the international community has called for such action, the Taliban has yet to comply. Furthermore, the Afghan people have expressed their support for democracy, understanding the significance of political stability and peaceful living. They believe that power conflicts can only be resolved through free elections, an updated constitution emphasizing the division of presidential and parliamentary powers, and the rule of law. Ultimately, achieving a peaceful resolution would create a positive environment for the future of Afghanistan, reduce violence, and prevent forced migration. All parties must work together to ensure a prosperous future for Afghanistan.

Conclusion

Afghanistan has endured four decades of prolonged conflict, political instability, and religious extremism, leading to persistent and widespread forced migration. From the Soviet Union's invasion in 1979 to the recent return of the Taliban to power, violence, persecution, and human rights abuses have driven forced migration from Afghanistan to various countries worldwide. Historical analysis reveals that conflict and political instability have become significant drivers of forced migration, exacerbating ethnic tensions and weakening central government functions. Following the Soviet Union's withdrawal in 1988, the Islamic parties that had fought against the Soviet occupation for nine years had an opportunity to resolve their disputes with the last communist government and reach a political settlement. However, despite the United Nations peace efforts, rival groups could not compromise to achieve peace and improve stability. Furthermore, after the fall of the communist government and the victory of the mujahideen factions, Afghanistan briefly experienced both peace and stability, prompting many migrants who fled during the Soviet occupation to return. However, due to power struggles between Islamic parties and intervention from neighbouring countries, particularly Pakistan's involvement in Afghanistan's internal affairs and support for some mujahideen groups against the government led by Rabbani, the second President of Afghanistan during the post-communist regime period, internal war and forced migration persisted.

Examining four decades of history reveals that forced migration in Afghanistan is the result of prolonged conflict, violence, persecution, and poor economic conditions. Therefore, preventing forced migration depends on specific factors such as a stable government, socio-economic development, respect for human rights, gender equality, and the empowerment of civil society. For positive social and economic changes, the country must reduce violence and prioritize education and work, thus bringing a transition from negative experiences to constructive ones for the sustainable achievement of peace. Achieving these objectives requires resolving conflicts between the Taliban de facto government and opposition parties. Otherwise, without attaining peace and stability, it can be challenging to reduce internal displacement and forced migration from Afghanistan to other countries. Addressing the issues in Afghanistan and finding solutions to improve peace-building and stability necessitates intervention from the UN and other international organizations.